Democracy in Africa: Botswana, Morocco and Ghana

Democracy in Africa: Botswana, Morocco and Ghana Contents (Jump to) INTRODUCTION Categories of democracy Direct democracy Indirect/ representative democracy Characteristics of democracy Elected representative; Free and fair elections Civil liberties/ Fundamental human rights Rule of law Separation of powers Democracy in Africa Botswana Uninterrupted Free Elections Accountability and Transparency Anticorruption Powers Fundamental human rights Morocco Authoritarian Monarchy Reforming Monarchs Reconciliation and Justice Freedom of Expression Ghana Conclusion Bibliography INTRODUCTION Democracy is a term conversant to most people, but it is misunderstood and misused at a time when authoritarians and coup leaders assert popular support by claiming the mantle of democracy especially in Africa. Democracy has prevailed through a long and turbulent history, and democratic governments in Europe and America, notwithstanding continuing challenges, continues to progress and flourish throughout the world. Democracy derives from a Greek word demos, or people, it is defined as government in which the supreme power is vested in the people. A democracy is a system of government in which leaders are elected in competitive elections, where many parties and candidates take part and where opposition parties can attain power if they gain widespread support (deth Van Deth, 2005). Democracy has different forms, in some cases it can be exercised directly by the people, in large societies or by the people through their elected representatives. According to the memorable phrase of Abraham Lincoln, â€Å"democracy is government of the people, by the people, and for the people.† Categories of democracy Democracy has two categories, direct and representative. Direct democracy Citizens partake in making public decisions without the intermediary of elected representatives. This system is practical with rather a small number of people in a community, tribe council, for example in the UK, New England Town Meeting residents of the town attend debates and vote directly on town policies. Some U.S. states, practice direct democracy by placing propositions and referenda to change laws. In Switzerland, vital political decisions on matters, including health, employment, are put to vote by the citizens. Indirect/ representative democracy Indirect democracy is a system of government in which the public controls the government through elected representatives. The voted agents represent the people as opposed to the direct democracy whereby citizens make public policy decisions directly through polls or initiatives. An example of this type of democracy is in Kenya. The public votes in people to represent them in government institutions. The elected officials make laws, political enactments and administer public programs. Characteristics of democracy Democracies are different in every part of the world; people’s democratic ideals are influenced by their culture and society. It is more than a set of precise government institutions (Gupta, 2013). Most democracies rest upon a well unstated set of values, attitudes, and practices which may have diverse forms and expressions among cultures and societies around the world. However, the fundamental characteristics and principles of a democracy remain consistent (Cincotta, 2004). A true form of democracy should include: Elected representative; Free and fair elections All democracies should hold regular elections and allow adults or people of a certain age to take part in voting. The elections should be free and fair so as to encourage political competition for the good of the public. A democracy must have officials elected by the people to make laws and frame policies of the government. Civil liberties/ Fundamental human rights A vital characteristic of democracy is that it gives or ensures its citizens have top civil rights or fundamental rights. Democracies allow their citizens freedom of speech and press, freedom of religion and conscience, freedom of assembly and association, right to equal protection by the law, right to due process of law and fair trial, and property rights to land goods and money. Rule of law Rule of law is another characteristic of democracy. Democratic governments should ensure that there is rule of law whereby no individual is above the law and there is due process of law. This ensures emphasizes that the Law is supreme and citizens are all equal in the eyes of law. Separation of powers A democracy should ensure that all institutions of the government have equal power. This ensures accountability by encouraging checks and balances between the government institutions. Democracies with separated powers ensure provisions for effective checks and balances between the executive, judiciary and the parliament are made. This makes sure that all levels of government must be as accessible and responsive to the people as possible. Democracy in Africa Democracy started sweeping across Africa in the early 1990s after the end of cold war. A wave of democratization was propagated all over Africa by the West. Claude Ake argues that the reforms in Eastern Europe contributed to the west advocating for democracy in Africa. Ake claims that Eastern Europe provided the West with a dramatic vindication of its own values and a sense of the historical inevitability of the triumph of democracy (Ake, 1991), a mission widely believed, would consolidate the domination of Western ideals all over the world. Authoritarians and single party states were forced by western powers to democratize their states. Undemocratic states were expected to launch democratic reforms so that they could get international support and donors themselves started to provide democracy assistance. Activists during the time of democratization of Africa wished for more political freedoms and strong institutions hoping that democracy would lead to more government accountability and more effective development. Africans themselves have also struggled for democracy, an example of this is the Saba Saba movement whereby Kenyan political activities fighting for multiparty democracy had a violent confrontation with authorities. Ake gives examples of the popular rejection of military rule in Nigeria and also the struggle for multiparty in Cameroon (Ake, 1991). Thomas C. Mountain argues that Western style â€Å"democracy† is destroying Africa. Thomas insists Africans should have been allowed to practice their traditional form of democracy which was more of most arriving at a consensus where everyone got something after persuasion by council of elders (Mountain, 2012). Democracy in Africa continues to face many challenges such as poverty, coup d’à ©tats, corruption and many other problems. However there are countries that have overcome these problems and challenges. Some of these states have enjoyed long periods of political stability but their level of democracy can be argued according to ones definition of democracy. A case study of three African states would be used to analyse democracy in Africa. Botswana In November 2008, Festus Gontebanye Mogae, the former president of Botswana received an award from (Sarkin Cook, 2008)Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership. The reason why Botswana’s president won was because [Botswana‘s] democracy was strong, stable and rooted in the rule of law. Botswana was widely regarded as one of the more effective countries in the world in combating corruption. President Mogae‘s outstanding leadership has ensured Botswana‘s continued stability and prosperity in the face of an HIV/AIDS pandemic which threatened the future of his country and people. The Prize Committee believed that good governance requires an environment conducive to peace, security and development, based on the rule of law and respect for human rights. Botswana has had to address the challenge of advancing each in a balanced way. This has been helped by the independence and integrity of its institutions which bodes well for further progress towards sprea ding wealth and opportunity across all sectors of Botswana society. Botswana’s democracy has been characterized by: Uninterrupted Free Elections Botswana is one of a few African countries that have enjoyed free and uninterrupted elections in Africa since it gained independence from Britain. Having held free elections since it gained independence, Botswana portrays an ideal democracy in Africa. Civilian rule has been uninterrupted by the military or any autocratic governments. Accountability and Transparency Botswana has had a reputation for accountability and transparency. Accountability and transparency have been formalized through mechanisms such as the constitution and legislation requiring open government, accountability, and transparency. Presidents of Botswana have insisted on governments accountability mechanism and limiting corruption Anticorruption Powers Botswana’s government enacted a bill in 1994 that set up an anticorruption body. The anti-corruption body was vested with the powers to conduct investigations and make arrests. (Sarkin Cook, 2008) In Botswana, there are laws that establish civilian supervision over the police and a process, through a supervisory body, for civilians to lodge complaints against police abuses and other human rights violations. Fundamental human rights The constitution of Botswana guarantees the freedoms of speech and the press, association, religion and right to equal protection by the law. The right of the citizens is protected by the constitution which is the supreme law of Botswana. There are many reasons for Botswana‘s democratic success. Some reasons are due to Botswana‘s unique history and context, a few are coincidental, but several are as a result of efforts put in by the country‘s leaders (Sarkin Cook, 2008). (Hazan, 2006)Scholars have debated these achievements, resulting in many assessments applauding Botswana and a handful that note Botswana‘s success story is not without significant flaws. Some of these flaws include oppression of the minority San tribe, expulsion of foreign reports and scholars, and limitations on access to information. Morocco Authoritarian Monarchy The kingdom of Morocco is an example of an authoritarian state. After its independence, Mohammed V assumed the title of king after imposing a constitutional monarchy and establishing a one-party state. Morocco has been characterized by oppression of opposition, forced disappearance, extrajudicial killings, and imprisonment of political opponents. (Hazan, 2006) Reforming Monarchs Remarkably for an authoritarian leader, King Hassan IIs last, initiated a reform and reconciliation process, in which he freed political prisoners, enacted constitutional amendments in 1996, which established a bicameral parliament with extended powers, and launched an independent commission of inquiry to start investigative human rights abuses. Hassan invited exiled political opposition to return and after the 1997 legislative elections, which despite irregularities brought many previously banned parties and opposition members to the Chamber of Representatives. Unusually for an authoritarian leader, Hassan 2 initiated a reform and reconciliation process. When Mohammed VI, the son of Hassan 2 assumed the throne in 1999, he continued with his fathers political reforms. The King gave out two amnesties, resulting in the release of thousands of political prisoners. By the election in 2002, the elections were deemed free and fair by international observers. In 2004, a new law was passed and it placed restrictions on polygamy, divorce and improved women’s right. Reconciliation and Justice Mohammed VIs established the Equity and Reconciliation Commission (IER) in 2004 with a mandate to examine human rights abuses that occurred from 1956 to 1999. Driss Benzekri, a former political prisoner was appointed as its head. The nature of the commission assessment of compensation brought about changes in government’s support for international human rights agreements previously unsupported. (Hazan, 2006) Although Hassan II and Mohammed VI introduced reforms, they were outwardly impressive. They made sure that no real changes to the constitutional monarchy were made to date. . Freedom of Expression Morocco is extensively condemned for its lack of freedom of expression. The government exercises control over the media and punishes a few independent newspapers that exist. Most broadcast media in Morocco are entirely or partially owned by the state. Self-censorship is common due to punishment for coverage that is deemed inappropriate by the government. Newspapers such as Le Journal have been shut down or penalized, and editors arrested. Le Journal came under government condemnation for its political coverage, and also coverage of corruption of government officials. The Moroccan government has failed to respect human rights since independence, and its constitutional monarchy does not tolerate any serious checks and balances on the kings powers or actions. No democracy movement has been able to press for the resignation of the king or to fight for reforms. (Hazan, 2006) The recent resolutions have failed to create a genuine accountability or justice for the victims or their families. Due process and rights expression and association remain curtailed. Ghana Ghana is rated highly on most of basic measures of democracies. This includes protection of fundamental civil liberties and human rights. Ghana has been successful in holding free and fair elections over the past two decades, and reducing poverty. Ghanaian democracy has not been as much successful in participation of most political actors in the country’s governance processes and institutions beyond elections. (Anebo, 2001) Actual participation drafting and implementation of public policy has been restricted to a number of political elite who have succeeded in capturing the presidency although through fairly competitive elections. The president has more powers than the other branches of government. He enjoys vast political and economic resources that he can use to get political support. Elections are the only real check and balance on the executive. Although major political parties, the New Patriotic Party (NPP), and the National Democratic Congress (NDC) have accepted the legitimacy of the guidelines that govern politics in Ghana, these guidelines have serious flaws. (Bratton, Michael, Lewis, Boadi., 2001)The elite accord among partisan parties is an agreement to uphold the status quo, regardless of its negative impact on good governance and democratic practice. Ghanaians expect economic and social benefits (Anebo, 2001) of democracy than the government appears to produce through existing institutional arrangements. The 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees the Human Rights of all individuals found within the territorial boundaries of the Republic of Ghana. Chapter 5 of 1992 Constitution, Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms ensures rights such as right to life, economic rights and womens right are adhered to. The entire chapter 5 can only be amended by the people of Ghana through voting at a referendum. Ghanaians enjoy freedom of press and information thus making it one of the countries in Africa that does not oppress the media. (Arthur, 2010) Conclusion Africa has a long way to go to attain full democratic status with them being welfare states. There a lot of limitations those hinder the full initiation of democracy in many African countries. Ethnicity, poor leadership, poverty, corruption have been significant in preventing democratization in Africa. I strongly agree with Akes arguments that the trail of democracy would not feed or shelter the needy. (Ake, 1991) If Africa is to achieve democracy, people must first be enlightened and kick out the anti-democracy forces. Some African countries are still under authoritative and corrupt rulers. These leaders pretend to be practicing democracy; they hold elections full of deceit and thus cling on to power. Democracy must be considered African context most pressing needs and people must first be educated to accept and appreciate democracy as Ake argues. (Ake, 1991) Bibliography Ake, C. (1991). Rethinking African Democracy. Journal of Democracy, 33-44. Anebo, F. (2001). The Ghana 2000 Elections. Journal of African Political Science, 69-88. Arthur, P. (2010). Democratic Consolidation in Ghana:The Role and Contribution of the Media, Civil Society and State Institutions . Comparative and Commonwealth Studies, 203-226. Arthur, Peter. 2010. Democratic Consolidation in Ghana: The Role and Contribution of the Media, Civil Society and State Institutions.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬- Comparative and Commonwealth Studies 48(2): . (n.d.). 203-226. Bratton, Michael, Lewis, P., Boadi., E. G. (2001). Constituencies for Reform in Ghana. Journal of Modern African Studies, 231-259. Cincotta, H. (2004). Democracy in brief. Washington DC: division of US studies. Deth, k. n., Van Deth, J. W. (2005). The Democratic State. In Foundations of Comparative politics (p. 22). New York: Cambridge University. Gupta, T. (2013, 12 4). preserve articles. Retrieved from preservearticles.com: http://www.preservearticles.com/2012051632235/what-are-the-five-features-of-democracy.html Hazan, P. (2006). Morocco: Betting on a Truth and Reconciliation Commission. United States Institute of Peace Special Report 165 . Mountain, T. C. (2012). Destroying Africa With Western â€Å"Democracy†. Foreign policy journal, 72-96. Sarkin, j., Cook, A. (2008). Is Botswana the Miracle of Africa? Democracy, the Rule. TRANSNATIONAL LAW CONTEMPORARY PROBLEMS, 453-457. Individual Differences: Trait Theory and Personal Constructs Individual Differences: Trait Theory and Personal Constructs Miss Emma Elizabeth Dorothy Meredith How well does trait theory help us understand individual differences? Discuss this question with reference to personal construct theory. This essay will explore trait theory and how it helps us to understand individual differences in comparison with personal construct theory. The basis of each approach is; trait theory describes a reasonably solid characteristic which differentiates one individual from another, whereas personal construct theory argues that individuals create their own way of making sense of the world through creating their own private structures. The essay will begin by outlining the main notions of the theories, to gain an insight of how individual differences are perceived by each approach. This essay will aim to identify strengths and limitations in each approach and will conclude by evaluating the extent to which each theory can account for and explain individual differences. Trait theory is based in the social cognitive perspective and developed from the experimental tradition to individual differences and which are seen as fixed ways in which individuals can vary from each other (Butt, 2012). The aim of trait theory is to find commonplace dimensions from a broad variety of individuals, which would then help theorists to predict the behaviour of an individual in certain situations. Individual differences are defined by using questionnaires as a measurement of personality. This fits in well with the social cognitive approach which sees individuals as information processing beings in the social world (Hollway, 2012). Eysenck and Rachman (1965, cited Butt 2012) argued genetic and biological factors were responsible for personality traits. By using psychometric tests, designed to assess traits of individuals, they sought to explore personality causality. Eysenck’s theory suggests personality can be characterised by three specific traits (extraversion/ introversion, neuroticism and psychoticism) suggesting each of these traits are characterised by particular behavioural attributes. From the data gained from Eysenck’s personality inventories (Eysenck and Eysenck, 1963, cited Butt 2012) they argued these traits are behavioural expressions of biologically based differences, similar to the â€Å"four temperaments† of Hippocrates and Galen from Ancient Greece. Eysenck and Rachman’s (1965, cited Butt 2012) research claims there are two main dimensions of personality which are unrelated. These are extraversion and neuroticism and are behavioural definitions of differences in temperament. They argue these dimensions are grounded in autonomic and cortisol arousal and suggest the relationship between behavioural patterns and inherent brain structure is similar to phenotype and genotype in biology (Butt 2012). It was argued by Eysenck there could be a clinical application if main dimensions were found and linked to disti nctive types of neurotic behaviour and may explain the some of the psychological disorders some individuals acquire, which would allow for future treatment and interventions. Trait theories of personality describe personality in terms of characteristics such as, reliable – unreliable, or group traits, which have been recognised through factor analysis to form clusters into personality dimensions, for example, extraversion includes traits such as ‘risk taking’ and ‘sociability’(Stevens 2007). Personal construct theory was developed by George Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012; Stevens 2007), he focussed his work on individual differences and viewed personality as an individual experience (Stevens, 2007). It promotes constructs which Kelly used to describe the bipolar dimensions (e.g. Friendly/cold, interesting/boring) which underlie the ways in which a person makes sense of their world (Stevens 2007). Based in the phenomenological perspective, which focuses is on how things (especially other people) appear different to each individual, personal construct theory aims to understand how an individual uses their subjective experiences to create a set of personal constructs which in turn help them to make sense of the world and to take account of the distinctiveness of each individuals personality (Butt 2012). Personal construct theory considers individual differences as taking account of and recognising each individual’s view of the world and how this helps to create their p ersonality and who they become as an individual (Butt 2012; Stevens 2007). Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012; Stevens 2007) argued it is peoples own experiences which build their set of constructs and these are used to evaluate situations. Two people assessing the same scenario will therefore see things differently, and this is where individual differences occur. Constructs are seen as being fluid and looking at oneself through another’s eyes, individuals can make conscious choices in order to change their view of the world and their personality (Butt 2012). However, as individuals put a lot of effort into building these constructions, Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012) argued the individual may not wish to change them. Personal construct theory is grounded in subjective methodology. Kelly (1955, cited Butt 2012) developed the Repertory Grid to investigate the sets of personal constructs used by individuals. This works through the process of individuals designating constructs to all persons considered to be a part of their life. This enables the bipolar dimensions to be determined. When analysed it reveals the differences found in each individual’s experiences and how they will assess the same person or situation in completely differing ways. If a person is rigid in their constructs they may believe an individual who is aloof would also be a cold person. Having this rigidity in a personality could lead to relationship problems as opposed to someone with a more fluid personality. Constructs are created subconsciously, so by using the grid, individuals are able to gain insight and relate their own particular meaning to their surrounding environment which would not usually be available (Butt, 20 12). A strength of personal construct theory is it adds a holistic understanding of individual differences. It also transcends both the individual-society dualism and agency-structure dualism, the individual is considered from their own experiences and also by being part of the social world (Hollway, 2012). Personal construct theory accepts people change and society can help in promoting this change. Personal construct theory does have limitations. The findings cannot be compared across a wider population. It is also a relatively new theory and as a result has not been researched or tested to the same extent as trait theory. Trait theory is an older theory and has been thoroughly researched and tested extensively. The methodology is objective and the ontology views humans as information processing entities and by using personality measurements such as Eysenck’s personality inventory, larger groups of individuals can be compared. The aim is the objective measurement of individual differences. A biological reductionist attitude to individual differences was adopted by Eysenck suggesting traits are biologically determined, making them consistent and giving predictive value. This reductionist approach means problems with dualism are avoided as the behaviour is reduced to physiological levels. This enables behaviour to be better understood. The objectivity and consistency allows trait theory a broader range for application and its findings can be used to pinpoint trends within organisations. Being grounded in the experimental tradition the knowledge production is limited to the data with no reference t o the influence of social environments and individual experiences (Hollway 2012). Trait theory does have other limitations, it only describes personality and identifies trends it does not explain it; neither does it explain behaviour (Skinner 1974, cited Butt 2012). It is designed to measure reactions and consistency in the reactions of individuals in certain situations. Mischel (1968, cited Butt 2012) argued that trait theory methods reduced the complexity of human behaviour to become more general. He also argued that there is very little evidence supporting the consistency in behaviour that is claimed by trait theorists assuming that behaviour is fixed over time, compared to the considerable amount of substantial evidence to support behaviours changing in time and in different situations. Compared with personal construct theory, trait theory is seen to be an apt way of considering personality resembling lay theories used by individuals when gauging others. Individuals are able to predict future behaviour assuming that these traits are consistent (Butt 2012). Personality traits are seen as biological and rigid within trait theory and unlikely to change. As a result has it has a less practical use, compared with personal construct theory, in assisting changes in personality. Unlike personal constructs, how the individual’s social life influences the individuals personality is not taken in to account within trait theory. As personal construct theory is subjective, in comparison to the objectivity of trait theory, it is situated in time and place whereas the situated knowledge displayed in the trait theory data from the questionnaires are specific to the current situation and are not necessarily generalised therefore could be ecologically invalid when taken out of context. Individual personalities are considered to be rich with differences and largely taken in to account within personal constructs, which is not seen in trait theory (Butt 2012). As personal construct theory uses a qualitative interview method, any power that the therapist has would be in drafting the questions needed to gain details of the personal experiences of the client. The client can then interpret these and place onto the repertory grid. The power relations found in personal construct theory are by no means to the same degree as those found within trait theory. The repertory grid method stops the researcher having much influence over the research findings and is a large strength of personal construct theory (Salmon 2003 cited Butt 2012). Trait theorists have more power over the individual, coming from the experimental tradition, it is argued that rather than totally showing an individual’s personality traits accurately, the outcomes are heavily influenced by the personality and experience of the researcher as they have influence over the design of the questions and can manipulate this design. Therefore, trait theory findings have the potential to be inaccurate as individuals are judged against what is treated as normal by people who they believe are the authority on the subject (Mischel 1968, cited Butt 2012). Psychometric measures are used in education in such a way the result is pupils are only taught how to pass tests by their teachers. It was argued by Salmon (2003, cited Butt 2012) by teaching and testing students in this way, the ability level becomes rigid and the learning becomes generalised. Students are then grouped according to how they have performed in the test and their individual personalities are ignored. Personal construct theory in contrast to trait theory, do not see students abilities as fixed but are somewhat fluid. Salmon (2003, cited Butt 2012) applied essential parts of personal construct theory to education and argued the way that trait theorists suggests children learn is false and children do not leave their own personal worlds at the door when they enter the classroom. Instead meanings are derived from a personal system of understandings. In the way each student’s individuality brings with it their own world and their own personality within world. This me ans they will have different views on learning styles to others, a type one pupil loves another may hate and Salmon argued to promote personal development and growth, schools need to take account of the current personal constructs held by each student. The Salmon Line was later developed as a qualitative tool, where personal meanings are plotted on a line. These represent the student’s current abilities and their desired goals. This allows students to see how they are progressing and what they need to do to change and grow using their own meanings and sense of progression, and giving them an active part in their learning (Salmon 2003, cited Butt 2012). Trait theorists see traits as fixed, determined by biological factors and unchanging through the environment which would suggest individuals have no part in changing their personality traits and social structures to not have any bearing on personality traits at all. However, the methodology used in trait theory means that it has a wide scope to be used across larger populations. In contrast, personal construct theory accepts people change and society facilitates that change, allowing for a better understanding as to why change happens in different situations, when this happens and how this happens. Variations of personal construct theory allows insight to change in the future, for example the ‘Salmon Line’ helps to promote learning by allowing students to set their own objectives to their learning and be aware of what they need to change in their personality to achieve it. This doesn’t make either of the theories right when it comes to explaining individuals diffe rence, as demonstrated they both contribute to our understanding of individual differences in very contrasting ways, and both have their fair share of strengths and weaknesses. Word Count: 2053 References: Butt. T, (2012) ‘Individual Differences’ in D. Langdridge, K. Mahnedran, S. Taylor (2nd ed) Critical Readings in Social Psychology, Maidenhead, Open University Press/Milton Keynes, The Open University. Hollway, W. (2012), ‘Social psychology: past and present’ in W. Hollway, H. Lucey, and A. Phoenix, (eds) Social Psychology Matters, Maidenhead, Open University Press/Milton Keynes, The Open University. Hollway, W. 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